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    Potential carcinogenic hazards of non-regulated disinfection by-products: Haloquinones, halo-cyclopentene and cyclohexene derivatives, N-halamines, halonitriles, and heterocyclic amines

    163450_163450...pdf (4.533Mb)
    Access Status
    Open access
    Authors
    Bull, R.
    Reckhow, D.
    Li, X.
    Humpage, A.
    Joll, Cynthia
    Hrudey, S.
    Date
    2011
    Type
    Journal Article
    
    Metadata
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    Citation
    Bull, Richard and Reckhow, David and Li, Xingfang and Humpage, Andrew and Joll, Cynthia and Hrudey, Steve. 2011. Potential carcinogenic hazards of non-regulated disinfection by-products: Haloquinones, halo-cyclopentene and cyclohexene derivatives, N-halamines, halonitriles, and heterocyclic amines. Toxicology. 286 (1-3): pp. 1-19.
    Source Title
    Toxicology
    DOI
    10.1016/j.tox.2011.05.004
    ISSN
    0300483X
    School
    Department of Applied Chemistry
    Remarks

    NOTICE: This is the author's version of a work that was accepted for publication in Toxicology. Changes resulting from the publishing process, such as peer review, editing, corrections, structural formatting, and other quality control mechanisms may not be reflected in this document. Changes may have been made to this work since it was submitted for publication. A definitive version was subsequently publishedf in Toxicology, 286, 1-3, 2011. DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2011.05.004

    URI
    http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11937/27173
    Collection
    • Curtin Research Publications
    Abstract

    Drinking water disinfectants react with natural organic material (NOM) present in source waters usedfor drinking water to produce a wide variety of by-products. Several hundred disinfections by-products(DBPs) have been identified, but none have been identified with sufficient carcinogenic potency to account for the cancer risks projected from epidemiological studies. In a search for DBPs that might fill this risk gap, the present study projected reactions of chlorine and chloramine that could occur with substructures present in NOM to produce novel by-products. A review of toxicological data on related compounds, supplemented by use of a quantitative structure toxicity relationship (QSTR) program TOPKAT identified chemicals with a high probability of being chronically toxic and/or carcinogenic among 489 established and novel DBPs. Classes of DBPs that were specifically examined were haloquinones (HQs), related halocyclopentene and cyclohexene (HCP&H) derivatives, halonitriles (HNs), organic N-chloramines (NCls), haloacetamides (HAMs), and nitrosamines (NAs). A review of toxicological data available for quinones suggested that HQs and HCP&H derivatives appeared likely to be of health concern and were predicted to have chronic lowest observed adverse effect levels (LOAELs) in the low g/kg day range. Several HQs were predicted to be carcinogenic. Some have now been identified in drinking water. The broader class of HNs was explored by considering current toxicological data on haloacetonitriles and extending this to halopropionitriles. 2,2-dichloropropionitrile has been identified in drinking water at low concentrations, as well as the more widely recognized haloacetonitriles. The occurrence of HAMs has been previously documented. The very limited toxicological data on HAMs suggests that this class would have toxicological potencies similar to the dihaloacetic acids. Organic N-halamines are also known to be produced in drinking water treatment and have biological properties of concern, but no member has ever been characterized toxicologically beyond bacterial or in vitro studies of genotoxicity. The documented formation of several nitrosamines from secondary amines from both natural and industrial sources prompted exploration of the formation of additional nitrosamines. N-diphenylnitrosamine was identified in drinking waters. Of more interest, however, was the formation of phenazine (and subsequently N-chorophenazine) in a competing reaction. These are the first heterocyclic amines that have been identified as chlorination by-products. Consideration of the amounts detected of members of these by-product classes and their probable toxicological potency suggest a prioritization for obtaining more detailed toxicological data of HQs > HCP&H derivatives > NCls > HNs. Based upon a ubiquitous occurrence and virtual lack of in vivo toxicological data, NCls are the most difficult group to assign a priority as potential carcinogenic risks. This analysis indicates that research on the general problem of DBPs requires a more systematic approach than has been pursued in the past. Utilization of predictive chemical tools to guide further research can help bring resolution to the DBP issue by identifying likely DBPs with high toxicological potency.

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